Infection Rates Matter -- Especially for People from Lower Social Class: A Large-Scale Investigation of the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Mental Health

The COVID-19 pandemic was a long-lasting and stressful event that had enormous psychological, economic, and social consequences. This study extends prior research by examining the relationship between infection rates and mental health as well as its dependency on social class. Therefore, we used large-scale data from a nationwide sample (N = 5,742) across two time periods in the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany (time period 1: April-July 2020;time period 2: January-February 2021). At the beginning of the pandemic, only lower-class individuals experienced mental health detriments with higher infection rates. In the course of the pandemic, however, higher infection rates were accompanied by severe mental health detriments for the general population, but especially for lower-class individuals. We discuss possible mechanisms underlying these effects such as infection rates as indicators of the crisis conditions and social class components as indicators of specific economic, cognitive, and social resources.

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on depression, anxiety, loneliness, and satisfaction in the German general population: a longitudinal analysis.

PURPOSE: Cross-sectional studies found high levels of depression and anxiety symptoms, and loneliness during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Reported increases were lower in longitudinal population-based findings. Studies including positive outcomes are rare. This study analyzed changes in mental health symptoms, loneliness, and satisfaction. METHODS: Respondents of the German Socio-Economic Panel (N = 6038) were surveyed pre-pandemic (2017/2019) and during the first (June 2020) and second wave (January and February 2021) of the pandemic. Self-report screeners assessed depression and anxiety symptoms, loneliness, life and health satisfaction. Difference scores were analysed using ANCOVAs focusing on time, gender, age groups. RESULTS: Depression and anxiety symptoms and health satisfaction increased from pre-pandemic to the first wave, but declined in the second pandemic wave. Loneliness increased and life satisfaction decreased during the first and the second wave of the pandemic. Young adults and women reported more distress and loneliness, even after controlling for pre-pandemic scores, education, and income. All effects remained stable when controlling for self-reported previous diagnosis of depression or region of residence. CONCLUSION: Increases and decreases in mental health symptoms and health satisfaction showed little variation. Of concern are the strong increases of loneliness and decreased life satisfaction being important targets for interventions. Main risk factors are young age and female gender.

The role of pre-pandemic depression for changes in depression, anxiety, and loneliness during the COVID-19 pandemic: Results from a longitudinal probability sample of adults from Germany.

BACKGROUND: The present study aims to delineate the role of preexisting depression for changes in common mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Using mixed-effects linear regression models, we analyzed data on the course of depressive (Patient Health Questionnaire-2) and anxiety (Generalized Anxiety Disorder-2) symptoms as well as loneliness (three-item UCLA Loneliness Scale) in a subset of the Socio-Economic Panel Study, a large and nationally representative household panel study from Germany. Participants were assessed during the first COVID-19 wave in Germany (March 31 to July 4, 2020; n = 6,694) and prospectively followed up at the peak of the second COVID-19 wave (January 18 to February 15, 2021; n = 6,038). RESULTS: Overall, anxiety and depressive symptoms decreased, whereas loneliness increased from the first to the second COVID-19 wave. However, depressive symptoms increased and the surge in loneliness was steeper in those with versus without clinically relevant depressive symptoms in 2019 or a history of a depressive disorder before the COVID-19 pandemic. Anxiety symptoms remained stable throughout the pandemic in individuals with versus without clinically relevant depressive symptoms in 2019. Pre-pandemic depression was associated with overall higher depressive and anxiety symptoms and loneliness across both assessments. The stringency of lockdown measures did not affect the results. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that individuals with a history of depressive symptoms before the COVID-19 pandemic are at increased risk to experience an escalation of mental health problems due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, they might particularly profit from targeted prevention and early intervention programs.

Loneliness During a Nationwide Lockdown and the Moderating Effect of Extroversion

Loneliness levels were assessed in a longitudinal, nationwide sample (N total = 6,010) collected over the course of the first 3 months of the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany. When in-person social contact restrictions were put in place, loneliness increased significantly compared to prepandemic levels but began to decrease again even before contact restrictions were eased. The loneliness costs were distributed unequally, such that greater increases in loneliness were experienced by women, younger, and extraverted, neurotic, and conscientious individuals. Our findings add to the growing literature on the importance of individual differences in crisis situations.